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Judaism is the oldest of the monotheistic
faiths. It affirms the existence of one God,
Yahweh, who entered into covenant with the
descendants of Abraham, God's chosen people.
Judaism's holy writings reveal how God has been
present with them throughout their history. These
writings are known as the Torah, specifically the
five books of Moses, but most broadly conceived as
the Hebrew Scriptures (traditionally called the
Old Testament by Christians) and the compilation
of oral tradition known as the Talmud (which
includes the Mishnah, the oral law).
According to Scripture, the Hebrew patriarch
Abraham (20th century? B.C.) founded the faith
that would become known as Judaism. He obeyed the
call of God to depart northern Mesopotamia and
travel to Canaan. God promised to bless his
descendants if they remained faithful in worship.
Abraham's line descended through Isaac, then Jacob
(also called Israel; his descendants came to be
called Israelites). According to Scripture, 12
families that descended from Jacob migrated to
Egypt, where they were enslaved. They were led out
of bondage (13th century? B.C.) by Moses, who
united them in the worship of Yahweh. The Hebrews
returned to Canaan after a 40-year sojourn in the
desert, conquering from the local peoples the
“promised land” that God had provided for them.
The 12 tribes of Israel lived in a covenant
association during the period of the judges
(1200?–1000? B.C.), leaders known for wisdom and
heroism. Saul first established a monarchy (r.
1025?–1005? B.C.); his successor, David (r.
1005?–965? B.C.), unified the land of Israel and
made Jerusalem its religious and political center.
Under his son, Solomon (r. 968?–928? B.C.), a
golden era culminated in the building of a temple,
replacing the portable sanctuary in use until that
time. Following Solomon's death, the kingdom was
split into Israel in the north and Judah in the
south. Political conflicts resulted in the
conquest of Israel by Assyria (721 B.C.) and the
defeat of Judah by Babylon (586 B.C.). Jerusalem
and its temple were destroyed, and many Judeans
were exiled to Babylon.
During the era of the kings, the prophets were
active in Israel and Judah. Their writings
emphasize faith in Yahweh as God of Israel and of
the entire universe, and they warn of the dangers
of worshiping other gods. They also cry out for
social justice.
The Judeans were permitted to return in 539 B.C.
to Judea, where they were ruled as a Persian
province. Though temple and cult were restored in
Jerusalem, during the exile a new class of
religious leaders had emerged—the scribes. They
became rivals to the temple hierarchy and would
eventually evolve into the party known as the
Pharisees.
Persian rule ended when Alexander the Great
conquered Palestine in 332 B.C. After his death,
rule of Judea alternated between Egypt and Syria.
When the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes tried
to prevent the practice of Judaism, a revolt was
led by the Maccabees (a Jewish family), winning
Jewish independence in 128 B.C. The Romans
conquered Jerusalem in 63 B.C.
During this period the Sadducees (temple priests)
and the Pharisees (teachers of the law in the
synagogues) offered different interpretations of
Judaism. Smaller groups that emerged were the
Essenes, a religious order; the Apocalyptists, who
expected divine deliverance led by the Messiah;
and the Zealots, who were prepared to fight for
national independence. Hellenism also influenced
Judaism at this time.
When the Zealots revolted, the Roman armies
destroyed Jerusalem and its temple (A.D. 70). The
Jews were scattered in the Diaspora (dispersion)
and experienced much persecution. Rabbinic
Judaism, developed according to Pharisaic practice
and centered on Torah and synagogue, became the
primary expression of faith. The Scriptures became
codified, and the Talmud took shape. In the 12th
century Maimonides formulated the influential 13
Articles of Faith, including belief in God, God's
oneness and lack of physical or other form, the
changelessness of Torah, restoration of the
monarchy under the Messiah, and resurrection of
the dead.
Two branches of European Judaism developed during
the Middle Ages: the Sephardic, based in Spain and
with an affinity to Babylonian Jews; and the
Ashkenazic, based in Franco-German lands and
affiliated with Rome and Palestine. Two forms of
Jewish mysticism also arose at this time: medieval
Hasidism and attention to the Kabbalah (a mystical
interpretation of Scripture).
After a respite during the 18th-century
Enlightenment, anti-Semitism again plagued
European Jews in the 19th century, sparking the
Zionist movement that culminated in the founding
of the state of Israel in 1948. The Holocaust of
World War II took the lives of more than 6 million
Jews.
Jews today continue synagogue worship, which
includes readings from the Law and the Prophets
and prayers, such as the Shema (Hear, O Israel)
and the Amidah (the 18 Benedictions). Religious
life is guided by the commandments of the Torah,
which include the practice of circumcision and
Sabbath observance.
Present-day Judaism has three main expressions:
Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Reform
movements, resulting from the Haskala (Jewish
Enlightenment) of the 18th century, began in
western Europe but took root in North America.
Reform Jews do not hold the oral law (Talmud) to
be a divine revelation, and they emphasize ethical
and moral teachings. Orthodox Jews follow the
traditional faith and practice with great
seriousness. They follow a strict kosher diet and
keep the Sabbath with care. Conservative Judaism,
which developed in the mid-18th century, holds the
Talmud to be authoritative and follows most
traditional practices, yet tries to make Judaism
relevant for each generation, believing that
change and tradition can complement each other.
Because the Torah assumes belief in God but does
not require it, a strong secular movement also
exists within Judaism, including atheist and
agnostic elements.
In general, Jews do not proselytize, but they do
welcome newcomers to their faith. |
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