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Buddhism was founded in the fourth or fifth
century B.C. in northern India by a man known
traditionally as Siddhartha (meaning “he who has
reached the goal”) Gautama, the son of a warrior
prince. Some scholars believe that he lived from
563 to 483 B.C., though his exact life span is
uncertain. Troubled by the inevitability of
suffering in human life, he left home and a
pampered life at the age of 29 to wander as an
ascetic, seeking religious insight and a solution
to the struggles of human existence. He passed
through many trials and practiced extreme
self-denial. Finally, while meditating under the
bodhi tree (“tree of perfect knowledge”), he
reached enlightenment and taught his followers
about his new spiritual understanding.
Gautama's teachings differed from the Hindu faith
prevalent in India at the time. Whereas in
Hinduism the Brahmin caste alone performed
religious functions and attained the highest
spiritual understanding, Gautama's beliefs were
more egalitarian, accessible to all who wished to
be enlightened. At the core of his understanding
were the Four Noble Truths: (1) all living beings
suffer; (2) the origin of this suffering is
desire—for material possessions, power, and so on;
(3) desire can be overcome; and (4) there is a
path that leads to release from desire. This way
is called the Noble Eightfold Path: right views,
right intention, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right concentration, and
right ecstasy.
Gautama promoted the concept of anatman (that a
person has no actual self) and the idea that
existence is characterized by impermanence. This
realization helps one let go of desire for
transient things. Still, Gautama did not recommend
extreme self-denial but rather a disciplined life
called the Middle Way. Like the Hindus, he
believed that existence consisted of
reincarnation, a cycle of birth and death. He held
that it could be broken only by reaching complete
detachment from worldly cares. Then the soul could
be released into nirvana (literally “blowing
out”)—an indescribable state of total
transcendence. Gautama traveled to preach the
dharma (sacred truth) and was recognized as the
Buddha (enlightened one). After his death his
followers continued to develop doctrine and
practice, which came to center on the Three
Jewels: the dharma (the sacred teachings of
Buddhism), the sangha (the community of followers,
which now includes nuns, monks, and laity), and
the Buddha. Under the patronage of the Mauryan
emperor Ashoka (third century B.C.), Buddhism
spread throughout India and to other parts of
Asia. Monasteries were established, as well as
temples dedicated to Buddha; at shrines his relics
were venerated. Though by the fourth century A.D.
Buddhist presence in India had dwindled, it
flourished in other parts of Asia.
Numerous Buddhist sects have emerged. The oldest,
called the Theravada (Way of the Elders)
tradition, interprets Buddha as a great sage but
not a deity. It emphasizes meditation and ritual
practices that help the individual become an
arhat, an enlightened being. Its followers
emphasize the authority of the earliest Buddhist
scriptures, the Tripitaka (Three Baskets), a
compilation of sermons, rules for celibates, and
doctrine. This sect is prevalent in Southeast Asia
and Sri Lanka. It is sometimes called the Hinayana
(Lesser Vehicle) tradition (once considered a
pejorative term).
Between the second century B.C. and the second
century A.D., the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
tradition refocused Buddhism to concentrate less
on individual attainment of enlightenment and more
on concern for humanity. It promotes the ideal of
the bodhisattva (enlightened being), who shuns
entering nirvana until all sentient beings can do
so as well, willingly remaining in the painful
cycle of birth and death to perform works of
compassion. Members of this tradition conceive of
Buddha as an eternal being to whom prayers can be
made; other Buddhas are revered as well, adding a
polytheistic dimension to the religion. Numerous
sects have developed from the Mahayana tradition,
which has been influential in China, Korea, and
Japan.
A third broad tradition, variously called
Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle), Mantrayana (Vehicle
of the Mantra), or Tantric Buddhism, offers a
quicker, more demanding way to achieve nirvana.
Because of its level of challenge—enabling one to
reach enlightenment in one lifetime—it requires
the guidance of a spiritual leader. It is most
prominent in Tibet and Mongolia.
Zen Buddhism encourages individuals to seek the
Buddha nature within themselves and to practice a
disciplined form of sitting meditation in order to
reach satori—spiritual enlightenment. |
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